setelah ditugaskan secara kelompok untuk mendiskusikan masalah Pragmatik...alhamdulillah, kelompok 5 sukses mengeksekusi tugas tersebut ^^....
ayo kita lihat bagaimana makalah Pragmatic yang kelompok 5 buat
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Pragmatic
Is branch of Linguistic that study of how language is
used to communicate.
Definition Pragmatic based on Yulie :
1.
field that examines the meaning of the
speaker;
2.
field that examines the meaning according to
the context;
3.
field, beyond the study of meaning
diujarkan, examines the meaning communicated or communicated by the speaker,
and
4.
field that examines
forms of expression by restricting the social distance participants involved in
a particular conversation.
Part Of Pragmatic
A.
Performatives
a.
Introduction
Studying pragmatic
concerns about speaker meaning based on the context. We can analyze speaker
meaning via speaker’s utterance by using speech act. Language is not just to
make statements but also to perform an act.
b.
Example
1.
I
Promise I’ll be there on time.
2.
I
name this book “Living in the Rooftop”.
3.
I
Apologize for the way I act.
Each
of the examples above constitutes the performance of an act.
1.
Constitute
an act Promising
2.
Constitute
an act of Naming
3.
Constitute
an act of Apologizing
Austin
noted that in order for a verb to be Performative, it must be present tense and
it must have a first person subject.
Compare
the following Examples
1.
I
promise I won’t be late (constitue an action, make a Promise)
2.
I
promised that I wouldn’t be late (Reports a past promise)
3.
Jhon
promises that he won’t be late (Report someone else Promise)
B.
Felicity
Condition
a.
Introduction
These
are conditions necessary to the success of a speech act. They take their name
from a Latin root - “felix” or “happy”. They are conditions needed
for success or achievement of a performative. Only certain people are qualified
to declare war, baptize people or sentence convicted felons. In some cases, the
speaker must be sincere (as in apologizing or vowing).
And external circumstances must be suitable: “Can you give me a
lift?” requires that the hearer has a motor vehicle, is able to drive it
somewhere and that the speaker has a reason for the request. It may be that the
utterance is meant as a joke or sarcasm, in which case a different
interpretation is in order.
b.
Part
Of Introduction
Austin further noted that
a number of other conditions had to be met if uttering a performative is to
constituate a valid act. These felicity conditions is divided into three
categories
1. The
person and Circumtances Must be appropriate.
Example :
An eight year old child
cannot perform a valid act of marryng by saying I now pronounce you man and
wife, even a bride and groom are eligible to be married.
In this case,either the
persons or circumstances are inappropriate. Hence, the speech acts in question
are inflectious.
2. The
act must be executed completely and correctly by all participants
Example :
a.
If
I say I bet you 5,000 rupias that
Indonesia will win The Aff Cup, but you respond with Sorry, I never gamble.
Then the act of betting is not valid.
b.
If
the policeman say I arrest you in the name of the law, but failsto read the suspect
his rights, then the act Arresting is not valid.
In
all of that cases, the act is not valid because the act is not completely or
correctly bay all of the participants.
3. The
Participants Must have the Appropriate Intentions
Example :
1.
Robert
and Alex are competing for the same job and Robert subsequently says I
congratulate you on your good Fortune,Alex.
In fact,secretly, Robert
hopes that Alex will develop High Fever and be unable to perform the Job.
In this case, the act of
congratulating is not Valid.
2.
I
promise you,I will attend your birthday party, but actually I plan to hang out
with my family in the same time. Then, the act Promising is not valid.
Associated
with each speech act is a set of felicity conditions that must be satisfied if
that speech act is to be correctly (including honestly) performed. Here are
some felicity conditions and requesting
INDRO
as a Speaker – DONO
as a Hearer – P for
Gossip - X
for state of affairs
a)
Indro
questions Dono about X:
1.
Indro doesnt know the truth about P
2.
Indro wants to know the truth about P
3.
Indro berlieves that Dono may be able to supply the
information about P that Indro wants.
b)
Indro requests Dono to
do A
1.
Indro believes A has not been done
2.
Indro believes that Dono is able to do A
3.
S believes that Dono is willing A for Indro
4.
Indro wants A to be done
When we think about what it means to ask a question
or make a request, then, what we think about are the felicity conditions
associated with each of these speech acts.
C.
Speech Acts
a.
Introduction
John searle, one of Austin’s students, wrote a doctoral dissertion in 1959
called Sence and reference. Searle developed and extended Austin’s ideas by
asumming that all utterance, not just those containing performative verbs,
constitute acts.
Example
1)
I’m sorry for stepping on yur toe
2)
Bib Boss said he was sorry for stepping on your Toe
(1)
As an istance of doing (act of apologizing) and (2) as
instant of saying (act of stating).
b.
Part of Speech acts
Searle categorizing all speech events into a different types of acts, she say
that there are at least five different felicity conditions
1. The speakers must intend to do what he promises
If i say I’ll give you this book when
i’m finished, but i have no intention of doing that. So then the speech act
of promising is not valid.
2. The speaker must believe (that the hearer believes) that
the action is in thehearer’s best
interest.
If a robber says to the cashier I promise I’ll shoot you if you do’t give
all your money. Then the act of promising is infelicitous because the rober
cannot possibly believe that the cashier believes the shooting is in the best
interest of the cashier. This speech act is not valid.
3. The speaker must believe that he can perform the action.
If a sick child says to her mother in anticipation of a weekend at the
beach, I promise i’ll be well on Friday.
This act of promising is not valid because the Cild couldn’t predict or
controlling her psychology condition. It means that the action must be within
the speaker”s control.
4. The speaker must predicate a future action.
If a child comes home from school and tell his mother that I promise i
didn’t spend my lunch money for candies, the speech act of Promising is not
Valid. The child can’t promise to do what is already done.
5. The speaker must predicate an act of him/herself
If little Dora said to Diego I
promise my mommy will make a Halloween costume for you, then the act of
promising is not valid. Dora is claiming that another person will perform a particular
action
D.
Locutionary,Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts
Searle expanded the concept thatevery speech act consists
of three separate acts, an act of saying, an act of doing something, an act of
affecting someone.
1.
Locutionary act
This is a act to description what
the speakers says.
Example : i am hungry, locutionary acts here means that he/she is in hunger
condition
2.
Illocutionary act
This is what the speaker is intend to do by uttering sentence.
Illocutionary acts is include stating,promising,apologizing,threatening,predicting,ordering,and
requesting
Example : mother tell Esmee “take your feet off the table”. Mother in this
acts is ordering Esmee to take off her feet.
3.
Perlocutionary
This is
the effect on the hearer of what the speaker’s says. If Mr. Weasley says to
Mrs.Weasley ten times in five minutes “Hurry up, we’re going to be late for the
meeting”. The illocutionary act might be one of urging but the perlocutionary
acrt is likely to be one irritating
Speech acts are extremly sensitive
to the context of the utterance in particular to the relationship between the
speaker and the hearer. Illocutionary and perlocutionary act change depend upon
who is talking to whom.
Example : YOU’D BETTER DO YOUR
HOMEWORKif a 20 year college student utters this sentence toher roomate
ilLocutionary act : urging
Perlocutionary : persuading
(especially if it is right before the final exams)
If a high school student tell this
to her students
Illocutionary : threatening
Perlocutionary : one of embarasing
(if it say in the front of entire class)
E.
Direct and Indirect Speech
a.
Introduction
In 1975, Searle
pointed out that one illocutionary act can be perfomed indirectly by performing another. For example, if I say to you Bring me my cat, I am performing a
single illocutionary act of requesting.
Thus, this would be a direct speech act. However, if I make the same request by
saying Could you bring me my coat?. I
am doing something quite different. Here, I am directly performing an
illocutionary act of asking a question
and indirectly performing and illocutionary act of making request.
b.
Direct Speech Acts
|
|
Utterance
|
Syntatic
Form
|
Dirrect
illocutionary act
|
|
1
2
3
|
The Earth is round
What time is It?
Get off my Foot
|
Declarative
Interogative
Imperative
|
Stating
Asking
Ordering
|
1.
declarative
form is used to make a statement
2.
an
interrogative form is used to ask a question
3.
imperative
form is used to give an order or make a request
c.
Indirect Speech Acts
In general , the syntactic
form of an utterance does not reflect any indirect illocutionary act is to
respond to the direct illocutionary
act. If the response seems inappropriate, then the utterance is probably being
used to perform an indirecty illocutionary
act. For example, suppose you are in a dinner, sitting at the counter; the salt
shaker is out of reach, so you turn to a stranger sitting next to you and say
Can you pass the salt? He says Yes but,
rather than passing the salt, turns back to this lunch. His response is
inappropriate because he responded to the direct illocutionary act (asking a
question) because he responded to the direct illocutionary act (making a
request).
d.
Example
Suppose Mrs. Olive is in her kitchen baking brownies,
and a beggar comes to the
back door and says I haven’t had anything
to eat in three days.
Direct act : The
syntactic form of the utterance is
declarative and
direct illocutionary act is one of stating.
Indirect act : the beggar is using a declarative structure to make
a request.
F.
Literal and Non Literal Speech acts
Another
phenomenon that our theory of languange use has to account for is that the
speakers sometimes mean what they say
literally and sometimes not.
For
example ,if i eat eight jelly donuts and then announce i feel just awful, i mean exactly what i say. Thus, this utterance
constitutes a literal speech
act.
On
the other hand, imagine a student a physics class who does not know a photon
from a fireplug. As he begins the midterm exam, he turns to his friend and says
i just love taking physics tests. He
does not mean what he says. This uttterance then, would constitute a nonliteral
speeech act.
G.
Interaction Of Direct-Indirect and Literal-Nonliteral
Speech acts
a. Literal
and direct.
Suppose you are having a
physical examination and the doctor says stick
out your tongue. This is a literal an direct speeech act. It is literal because the doctor means
exactly what these words say (i.e., that doctor wants you to stick out your
tongue).it is direct because an
imperative structure is being used to perform a direct illocutionary act,
namely making a request.
b.
Literal and indirect.
Suppose joe and jack are leaving a four-hour anatomy and
physiology exam. Joe says to jack that
was the most miserable test i’ve ever taken. Jack responds by saying you can say that again. This is a nonliteral direct speech act. It is
nonliteral because jack does not mean exactly what his word say (i.e., he does
not want joe to repeat his orginal statement). It is direct because jack is
using a declarative structure to
perform a direct illocutionary act, namely makings a statement(i.e., something
like/agree with you).
c. Literal
and indirect.
Imagine that you and a
friend are seated at a table in a restaurant. The butter is on your friend’s
side of the table, out of your reach. You say i’d like some butter. This is a literal and indirect speech act. It
is literal because you mean what
your words say(i.e., you would like some butter).it is indirect because you are using a declarative structure perform
speech a direct illoucutionary act of staring and an indirect illocutionary act
of requesting. Note the if your friend were to respond to the direct
illocutionary force of your utterance by simply making a statement(e.g., and
like i’d like million dollars) it would be inappropriate.
d.
Nonliteral and indirect.
Suppose mr. White is sitting in the waiting room of a
doctor’s office. After a few minutes the little girl begins to run around the
waiting room, yelling at the top of her lungs. Mr.white says why don’t you yell
a little louder? This is a nonliteral and indirect speech act. It is nonliteral because mr. White does not
mean what his word say (i.e., he does not want her to yell louder). It is indirect because mr.white is using an
interrogative structure to perform the indirect illocutionary act of making a
request(i.e., that the tittle be quiet). Note that if the child were to respond
to the direct illocutionary act by saying because i’m already yelling as loud
as i can i, it would be inappropriate. The relationship between directness and
literalness in speech acts is summarized in figure 2.
H.
Implicature
In 1975 article entitled “Logic and
Conversation” the philosopher Paul grice pointed out that an utterance can imply a proposition. Grice called such
implied statements implicatures.
Example:
Anthony : Where is the car?
Mom : Father is not already come
Based on that example, Anthony and Mom isn’t connected
each other in normally term.
But each Anthony and Mom already know that Mom utterance
is enough to answer the Anthony’s question,because they are know that the car is still used by father.
Father is not coming yet, it’s mean that the car is not on garage.
I.
Conversational
Maxim
In pragmatic
there are some cooperative principle.
1.
Maxim of
Quantity
1)
Make
your contribution as informative as is required.
2)
Do
not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Example :
X : “Look,
Teacher is coming!”
Y : “Look, Teacher who ex-headmaster
and used to have a breakfast in Canteen”
X and Y are in different time when see the teacher is coming. The X
utterance is clear and informative than what Y utterance.
2.
Maxim of
Quality
1)
Do
not say what you believe to be false.
2)
Do
not say that for which you lack adequate
evidence.
Example :
Luna : Beijing is the Capital of Indonesia, isn’t it?
Malfoy : yes, and Jakarta is the Capital of Canada then
3.
Maxim of relation/Relevance
This
maxim states: be relevant. In other word, each participant’s contribution
should be relevant to the subject of the conversation. Suppose I get out of bed
in the morning and ask my wife what time is it? She responds with well, the paper’s
already come. My wife’s statement raise an implicature. I reason
(unconsciously) as follows; I asked about the time and she told me about
something seemingly unrelated – the arrival of the newspaper. She appears to be
violating the maxim of relation; there must be some reason for her seemingly
irrelevant comment. The inference (i.e., the implicature) I draw is that she
doesn’t know the exact time but the arrival of the newspaper of the newspaper
has something to do with the time, namely that is now past the time of day the
newspaper usually comes (i.e., 7.00 a.m.)
4.
Maxim
of Manner
this maxim states :
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief.
4. Be orderly.
Suppose Mr. and Mrs. Jones
are out for a Sunday drive with their two preschool children. Mr. jones says to
Mrs. Jones Let’s stop and get something to eat. Mrs. Jones responds with okay,
but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s. Mrs. Jones’ statement raises an implicature. Mr.
jones reasons (unconsciously) as follows; She spelled out the word McDonald’s,
which is certainly not the most direct way of making a statement. She appears
to be violating the maxim of manner; there must be a reason for her
indirectness. Since the kids cannot spell, the inference (i.e., the
implicature) I draw is that she wants to keep that part of her statement from
the children.
>> any questions so far?? just add your comments
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